𝐖𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝐞𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡?

𝐖𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐈𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝐞𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐧 𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐬𝐡 ?

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 1760 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 1820 𝒂𝒏𝒅 1840. 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔, 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒄𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓, 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔, 𝒖𝒔𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒑 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔. 𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒚𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒂𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑲𝒆𝒆𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅; 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒊𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒅𝒐𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒌 𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 1815 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒙𝒕 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏; 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔, 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒅𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚. 𝑰𝒏 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒚𝒆𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆: 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒃𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒑𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒆𝒚𝒔 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒂𝒏, 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎, 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍. 𝑪𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒖𝒈𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒏𝒅. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒈𝒐. 𝑯𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒈𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏 1000 𝑩.𝑪. 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒔𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒍𝒅. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒚𝒎𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒔𝒂 𝒌𝒆𝒚 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏-𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚; 𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒂𝒚-𝒕𝒐-𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒚. 𝑰𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄, 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔. 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒔 𝒔𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒑𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚, 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒔𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 19𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 20𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔. 𝑨𝒕 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒂𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈. 𝑰𝒏 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚, 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝑬𝒖𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆, 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔. 𝑨𝒏 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑩𝒆𝒍𝒈𝒊𝒖𝒎, 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒖𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔, 𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆. 𝑮𝑫𝑷 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒚, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑩𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒔. 𝑩𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 1840 𝒂𝒏𝒅 1870, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒅𝒍𝒚 𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒔 𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝑨𝒍𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒕 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒍𝒚 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝑨𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂, 𝑬𝒖𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕. 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑾𝒂𝒚 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒍𝒅. 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏 18𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒉𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒚. 𝑫𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒀𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝑾𝒂𝒓, 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐 𝒍𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒔. 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅’𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒅𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒂 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒅-𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒏𝒂𝒗𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒑𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒍𝒅. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒔; 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒉𝑰𝒔𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒍𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒉. 𝑷𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒌, 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈. 𝑯𝒖𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒅𝒖𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒏𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆. 𝑫𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒔, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒕 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏. 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒔𝒐𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍. 𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 18𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒌𝒆 – 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒚𝒊𝒔𝒉, 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒐𝒇𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒓 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅. 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑴𝒊𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒆 𝑨𝒈𝒆𝒔, 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒎𝒆𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒖𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒑𝒖𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒌 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝑬𝒈𝒚𝒑𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒂, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒂 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍: 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒐𝒐 𝒎𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒍𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒖𝒑 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒅 𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒖𝒑𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒊𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒊𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔, 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚 𝑶𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒂 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔. 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒂 𝒄𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍. 𝑪𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒐𝒃𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒖𝒍. 𝑪𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 1678, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒌𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒇𝒆𝒘 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍, 𝒄𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒎 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒖𝒓 𝒂𝒔𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 1678𝒂𝒏𝒅 1687 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚. 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 1709 𝑨𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒉𝒂𝒎 𝑫𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒂𝒍𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒌𝒅𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒌𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒊𝒎 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒕-𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒔. 𝑯𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝑫𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔. 𝑫𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒚’𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝑲𝒆𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒉𝒂𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒂𝒓 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒅 1750’𝒔. 𝑪𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒊𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒅 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 1778. 𝑻𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒅𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒓 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏, 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒓𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒕’𝒔 𝒑𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔. 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔: 𝒊𝒏 1783 𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 1784 𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔. 𝑰𝒏 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒎 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕15 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈. 𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒔 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒔. 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒊𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒙𝒚𝒈𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒐𝒅, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈. 𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒐 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒔 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒃 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒊𝒈 𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒕. 𝑰𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒖𝒅𝒍𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 40. 𝑷𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆 𝒎𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒕 𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒔. 𝑻𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒎𝒊𝒅 17𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒅𝒅-𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒂. 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 1785 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒂𝒓 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝒕𝒉𝒆 19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝑱𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒖𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒕 𝑵𝒆𝒊𝒍𝒔𝒐𝒏, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒊𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒉𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒊𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒆-𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅𝒔 𝒊𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒘𝒐-𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅𝒔 𝒊𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅. 𝑯𝒐𝒕 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒌𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒆𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏, 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒃𝒆 𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒐𝒐 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅. 𝑵𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚. 𝑨𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒚 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒂𝒊𝒅 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍; 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒅𝒈𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅𝒏’𝒕 𝒃𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔. 𝑰𝒏 1740’𝒔 𝑩𝒆𝒏𝒋𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝑯𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒂 𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔. 𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒏𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒔, 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆, 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔. 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒊𝒕 𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔. 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑻𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒉𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒖𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒇𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅  𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒚 𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆, 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 1700’𝒔 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆, 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒂𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒖𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒑. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔, 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔, 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒚 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒓𝒔. 𝑴𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍, 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏, 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔. 𝑶𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚. 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅𝒕𝒐 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 1600’𝒔 𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆. 𝑨𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏 𝑲𝒂𝒚 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒉𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 1733, 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒂 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒘𝒐. 𝑯𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒚 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒑𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒖𝒏 𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒚𝒆𝒅. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒅 𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝑲𝒂𝒚’𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒕. 𝑲𝒂𝒚’𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒉𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒌 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆-𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒎𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒌𝒆𝒆𝒑𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒖𝒔𝒚. 𝑾𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏 1765, 𝒂 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒆, 𝑱𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝑯𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔, 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 “𝑱𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒚”, 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒇𝒆”. 𝑯𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 1770. 𝑺𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒂 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 100 𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝑯𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐𝒐 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒔 𝑲𝒂𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒋𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒆𝒅. 𝑪𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅20000 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒋𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒚’𝒔 𝒃𝒚 1778. 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒕 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚𝒂𝒓𝒏. 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒇𝒐𝒓1000 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 22 𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒋𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒚 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒐 400 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕 20 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔. 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔. 𝑰𝒏 1769, 𝑹𝒊𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑨𝒓𝒌𝒘 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂 𝒃𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓-𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅. 𝑺𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒖𝒆𝒍𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒂 𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑳𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑯𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒋𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝒓𝒌 𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕’𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓-𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒕 𝑺𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 8 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒊𝒏 1770 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 37 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒚 1790. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒌𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 1815 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 100 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒚 1850 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒃𝒐𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 250𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏. 𝑬𝒅𝒎𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒘𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑨𝒓𝒌𝒘 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒑𝒖𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒈𝒐 𝒖𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒂 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒊𝒏 1784 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 1785. 𝑬𝒅𝒎𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒘 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒚𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒐𝒃 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚. 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒘 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕’𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒔, 𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 1813 𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒔 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅𝒂 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒕𝒐𝒐. 𝑹𝒊𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑹𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒊𝒏 1822 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒔, 𝑯𝒊𝒍𝒍 &𝒂𝒎𝒑; 𝑪𝒐. 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒎𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒖𝒈𝒆 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒂 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆. 𝑲𝒆𝒆𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝒍𝒊 𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒕𝒏𝒆𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒈𝒊𝒏. 𝑾𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒘𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒐 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒈𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒅𝒂𝒚. 𝑴𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒑𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒚𝒂𝒓𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒉. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒚. 𝑨𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝑹𝒊𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑨𝒓𝒌𝒘 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒍𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏 𝑲𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒔 𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒔; 𝑨𝒓𝒌𝒘 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒇𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔, 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒔, 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔. 𝑯𝒆 𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒍𝒚, 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏. 𝑩𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒊𝒏 19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒂𝒔 𝑪𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚. 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝑾𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒐𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒇𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎. 𝑰𝒏 𝑨.𝑫 60 𝒂 𝑮𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒓, 𝑯𝒆𝒓𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒍𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒂 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒖𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒋𝒆𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕. 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒆, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒔𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒊𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒆𝒕𝒔. 𝑰𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒃𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆, 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒂 𝒕𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒆𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒑𝒊𝒍𝒆. 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆, 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒂 𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒂 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒆. 𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒊𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎, 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝒓𝒊𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓. 𝑫𝒆𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒄𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆. 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒉’𝒔 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒍𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒂 𝒉𝒖𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒓𝒖𝒎 𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝒂 𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒃𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕. 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒅𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒂 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅. 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒔 𝑺𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚, 𝒂 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒖𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎; 𝒊𝒏 1698 𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 – 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒔  𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅, 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔. 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒐𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒔 𝑺𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚’𝒔 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕-𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒖𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒔 𝒔𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 18𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒂𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒔 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 1712 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒊𝒅𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑫𝒖𝒅𝒍𝒆𝒚 𝑪𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒍𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑪𝒐𝒂𝒍𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒌𝒅𝒂𝒍𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒖𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆𝒔, 𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 5 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓. 𝑰𝒇 𝒘𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒌 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒊𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒊𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒑 𝒊𝒕 𝒈𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒆𝒑 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈. 𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒂 𝒇𝒆𝒘 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒅𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐, 𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚. 𝑩𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒇𝒂𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑯𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒓𝒚, 𝑨𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂, 𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑮𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚. 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒐𝒇 110 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒃𝒚 1733 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 14 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅. 𝑾𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓 𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏 𝑺𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 1,454 𝒃𝒚 1800. 𝑱𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔. 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒘 𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒂𝒅𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 1778 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔, 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇𝒇 𝒆𝒏𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑 𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒊𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎, 𝒘𝒂𝒔𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕 20 𝒕𝒐 25 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒂𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏’𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆. 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒐𝒉𝒐 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 1795. 𝑩𝒚 1800, 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚, 𝒊𝒕 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒅𝒐𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆. 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 496 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔  24 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔, 164 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 308 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒚, 𝒂𝒍𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅5 𝒕𝒐 10 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓. 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔. 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒍𝒂 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓-𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒆𝒏𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 1800 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆, 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒐𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇-𝒔𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆. 𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚, 𝑹𝒊𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝑻𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒌, 𝒂 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏 𝑨𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒏, 𝑶𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒔, 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒏𝒐𝒏-𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔, 𝒇𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒑 𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒐𝒏 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔, 𝒎𝒐𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒃𝒐𝒂𝒕𝒔. 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝑻𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒚 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒖𝒕 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒔. 𝑺𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒓𝒔. 𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔, 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔, 𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒔, 𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒂𝒘𝒔. 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒍𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓. 𝑾𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒔 𝒃𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒃𝒆 𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔. 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒄𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒔 𝒎𝒆𝒏 𝒈𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕𝒔 𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒓𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒆𝒕𝒄. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒃𝒊𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆-𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒅. 𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚𝑱𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒉 𝑩𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒉 𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒔 𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉, 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒍𝒂 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒂 𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒂 𝒕𝒉𝒆, 𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑯𝒆𝒏𝒓𝒚 𝑴𝒂𝒖𝒅𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒑. 𝑴𝒂𝒖𝒅𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒘 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆. 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒏 𝑴𝒂𝒖𝒅𝒔𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒖𝒑 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒘𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒎𝒆𝒏 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆. 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑪𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏 𝑹𝒐𝒆𝒃𝒖𝒄𝒌 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅, 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 1746. 𝑯𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 100 𝒑𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆. 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒍𝒌𝒂𝒍𝒊 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝑵𝒊𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒔 𝑳𝒆𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄 𝒊𝒏 1791. 𝑯𝒆 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑳𝒆𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒉𝒍𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒕𝒆. 𝑺𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒄𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒂𝒑, 𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓, 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔. 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒑𝒉𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔. 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒖𝒅𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒖𝒊𝒔, 𝒊𝒏 1800 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝑻𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒅𝒆𝒓, 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒔. 𝑯𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒕 𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔 𝒈𝒐𝒘 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒊𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒍𝒅. 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 1860’𝒔 𝑮𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒌 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒚𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒂𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒔 𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝑮𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒆. 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒅𝒊𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒖𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒚𝒆𝒅 𝑮𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒔. 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑶𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝑪𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 - 𝑨 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒉, 𝑱𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒉 𝑨𝒔𝒑𝒅𝒊𝒏, 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 1824. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒖𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒍. 𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 - 𝑾𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒎 𝑴𝒖𝒓𝒅𝒐𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒐𝒏 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 1812 𝒂𝒏𝒅 1820 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕𝒈𝒂𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒖𝒑. 𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒄𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒖𝒑𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆. 𝑷𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 - 𝑵𝒊𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒔 𝑳𝒐𝒖𝒊𝒔 𝑹𝒐𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒆𝒓. 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒐𝒅𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝒕. 𝑮𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑴𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 - 𝑰𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓 1832, 𝑳𝒖𝒄𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑾𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒎 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒔) 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒆𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒓𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒍𝒚. 𝑨𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 - 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑫𝒖𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉, 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒍𝒍. 𝑰𝒏 1701 𝒂 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒅𝒓𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝑱𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐 𝑻𝒖𝒍𝒍 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒃𝒚 𝑱𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒉 𝑭𝒐𝒍𝒋𝒂𝒎 𝒃𝒆 𝑹𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒉𝒂𝒎 𝒊𝒏 1730 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝑨𝒏𝒅𝒓𝒆𝒘 𝑴𝒆𝒊𝒌𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 1784. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒍𝒐𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓, 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒋𝒐𝒃𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒊𝒐𝒕𝒔. 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 – 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒑𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌, 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔, 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏. 𝑰𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒚 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔, 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒘 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒍𝒚, 𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒂 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆. 𝑩𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒏𝒆𝒘𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒂𝒔𝒕. 𝑪𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 – 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑪𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏 𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑾𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 18𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 3𝒓𝒅 𝑫𝒖𝒌𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒈𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓. 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒐𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝑪𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒕. 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒏 𝑴𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒑 𝑪𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒍𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓 1894. 𝑹𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 – 𝑩𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒌𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 1720 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒑𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒖𝒑 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔. 𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏 𝑴𝒄 𝑨𝒅𝒂𝒎, 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒔 𝑻𝒆𝒍𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒇 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒅𝒊𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒇𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒚𝒎𝒆𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝒓𝒖𝒏 𝒑𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒏 1825 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝑺𝒕𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑫𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 1830 𝑳𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒐𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒊𝒄. 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒌 𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 1829 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒕 𝒃𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒖𝒆𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏. 𝑺𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒕. 𝑨𝒍𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒔𝒖𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒆, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂 𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒚 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒈𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒋𝒆𝒏𝒏𝒚’𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒃𝒆 𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒎𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒅𝒐 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒈𝒆𝒕 𝒂 𝒋𝒐𝒃 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒐𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒅. 𝑰𝒕 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆1980’𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅. 𝑴𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒃𝒚 15% 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆 1780’𝒔. 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒅𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑭𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 35 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔, 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒐𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐𝒐. 𝑷𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒔; 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒅 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒂 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐. 𝑷𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒎𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒔𝒍𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒔𝒂𝒘𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕, 𝒖𝒏𝒉𝒚𝒈𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒈𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒊𝒌𝒆 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒊𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒂 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒓𝒆𝒏. 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏19𝒕𝒉 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅. 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑩𝒆𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒅𝒐𝒎 𝑩𝒆𝒍𝒈𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝑱𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒏 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏, 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒖𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒑 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑴𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝒖𝒉𝒓 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝑾𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒂 𝒈𝒐𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 “𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅” 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉. 𝑰𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒇𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒐𝒑𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑳𝒊𝒆𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒊 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑱𝒐𝒉𝒏 𝑪𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒖𝒑 𝒂 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚. 𝑯𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒃𝒓𝒆, 𝑯𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑴𝒆𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒊𝒅𝒏’𝒕 𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝒂𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔. 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂 𝑾𝒉𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒚. 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔, 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔, 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒂𝒍𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒂 𝒉𝒖𝒈𝒆 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒚. 𝑨𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂 𝒔𝒂𝒘 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒈𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑶𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒗𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒖𝒕𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒏𝒐 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆. 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 1787, 𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒕 𝑩𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒂𝒔 𝑺𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑩𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒍𝒚 𝑪𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝑴𝒂𝒏𝒖𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒊𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑨𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝑹𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅1100 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒚. 𝑰𝒏 1854 𝑾𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒎 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑾𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒎 𝒊𝒏 𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒄𝒉 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚. 𝑺𝒂𝒎𝒖𝒆𝒍 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒖𝒑 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝑴𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒊𝒏 1793, 𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑫𝒆𝒓𝒃𝒚𝒔𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝑵𝒆𝒘 𝒀𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏 1789, 𝒃𝒚 𝒃𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒍𝒂𝒘𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒓𝒔, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒆𝒅 13 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒊𝒍𝒍. 𝑮𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑮𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒖𝒍 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒄𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒚. 𝑷𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒚𝒆. 𝑬𝒂𝒓𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒓 𝒃𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝒐𝒇 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑮𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒍𝒂𝒈𝒈𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒃𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝑩𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏’𝒔 𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒃𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎 𝒖𝒑 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒐𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒔. 𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒏 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒘𝒐 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒍𝒚 𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒉𝒂𝒅 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔, 𝒏𝒆𝒘 𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒂 𝒔𝒚𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐-𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒄𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈, 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔, 𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅, 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒔. 𝑱𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑴𝒆𝒊𝒋𝒊𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒂𝒏 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝑱𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏 1870. 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒚 𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒚𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒈𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝑬𝒖𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒐𝒚𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 3,000 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒘𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒍𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒂𝒈𝒆, 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚, 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒘𝒂𝒌𝒖𝒓𝒂 𝑴𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑱𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒃𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒌-𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒊𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑱𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒄𝒌𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒖𝒑 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒔. 𝑰𝒏 1882, 𝑩𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝒐𝒇 𝑱𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒂𝒙𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒖𝒑 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒆𝒍. 𝑱𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒏'𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒖𝒑 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒙𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒌. 𝑺𝒊𝒍𝒌 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒎𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒑𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒕 𝒉𝒐𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝑯𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒃𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒎𝒖𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝒕. 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒔𝒆𝒕 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔, 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒍𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒘𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒆. 𝑯𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒅𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒃𝒆 𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒑 𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒚. 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒎 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒄𝒂𝒖𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝒃𝒐𝒐𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒃𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒂𝒏 𝒖𝒑𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒕𝒚 𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒘𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔 𝒉𝒆𝒍𝒑𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒋𝒐𝒃𝒔 𝒕𝒐𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒚𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒘𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒉 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒅 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒓𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆. 𝑺𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒎 𝒄𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒖𝒑 𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒎. 𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝑲𝒂𝒓𝒍 𝑴𝒂𝒓𝒙 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒘𝒐; 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒕, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒐 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒆. 𝑯𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒆𝒖𝒅𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒐𝒎𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒔, 𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒎, 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒂𝒘 𝒂𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒇 𝒂 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒐𝒘𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒔𝒎. 𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒃𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒏 𝒃𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒔𝒂𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒔 𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒓𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒎𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒆𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒌 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒅𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅.